Arab-Israeli Conflict

History of the Disputed Territory

The disputed territory at the centre of the Arab-Israeli conflict is primarily focused on historic Palestine, a region situated in the Eastern Mediterranean. In ancient times, it was home to various civilisations, including the Canaanites, Philistines, and Israelites. The area gained significant historical and religious importance due to its association with Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.  Jerusalem, located in the heart of historic Palestine, is particularly sacred to all three Abrahamic religions. It contains religious sites such as the Western Wall, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and the Dome of the Rock, making it a focal point of contention in the conflict.

In 1917 Britain issued the Balfour Declaration, stating its support for “the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people”. The San Remo Conference of 1920 finalised the partition of the Ottoman Empire. Britain was given a Mandate, approved by the League of Nations in 1922, to rule parts of the “international territory” post-World War I. This region was again split the following year into Palestine and Transjordan (now Jordan). In the late 1930s, tensions escalated in the region as a response to various issues, leading to a revolt by Arab nationalists in 1936. Subsequently, Zionist groups initiated their own resistance, gaining momentum post-World War II. 

Following the Holocaust, international pressure intensified for the acknowledgement of a Jewish state. Faced with mounting challenges, the British relinquished control and referred the matter to the United Nations. In 1947, the United Nations proposed a partition plan for Palestine into three parts:

• An Arab state

• A Jewish state

• Jerusalem (intended to be a corpus separatum, or a separate, internationally run entity)

The Jewish leadership accepted the plan, but Arab leaders rejected it. On 14th May 1948, David Ben-Gurion, the head of the Jewish Agency, proclaimed the establishment of the State of Israel, leading to the first Arab-Israeli war.

The Arab-Israeli War of 1948

The First Arab-Israeli War, also known as the War of Independence, took place in 1948 between the newly established State of Israel and a coalition of Arab States. Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon and Transjordan declared war on Israel on 15th May 1948, a day after it declared its independence. The War formally ended leaving Israel controlling much of the territory beyond the UN-designated partition plan; Gaza Strip and West Bank in control of Egypt and Jordan respectively, with several hundred thousand Palestinians displaced. In the Armistice of 1949, a demarcation line (known as the “Green Line”) served as the de facto borders between Israel and Arab States (Jordan), though the Arab governments refused to recognise Israel.

Suez Canal Crisis of 1956

In 1956, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal. Israel, France, and Britain launched a military intervention to reverse Egypt's move. The Eisenhower Doctrine, announced in November 1956, pledged U.S. support against communist aggression in the Middle East to counter Soviet influence. The UNGA Resolution 997 condemned the invasion of Egypt, demanding the withdrawal of foreign forces.  On 24th November 1956, the UNSC passed Resolution 119, calling for an immediate ceasefire and the withdrawal of Israeli, French, and British forces. This led to the establishment of the Suez Canal Users Association in 1957 to oversee the Canal's operation after its reopening.

The Six-Day War

Egypt's closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping and the concentration of Arab forces on Israel's borders triggered the war in June 1967. The war began on 5th June 1967, when Israel launched a preemptive strike against Egyptian airfields including Jordan and Syria. Over the next six days, the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) captured the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West Bank from Jordan (including East Jerusalem), and the Golan Heights from Syria. Israel's victory had lasting consequences: it established control over territories with strategic and historical significance, including the Old City of Jerusalem. The War ended with UNSC Resolution 242 passed under Chapter VI of the UN Charter.

The Yom Kippur War of 1973

The October War began on Yom Kippur, the holiest day in Judaism, with a coordinated surprise attack by Egyptian and Syrian forces. Egypt sought to regain the Sinai Peninsula, while Syria aimed to regain the Golan Heights. Aided by the US, Israeli forces crossed the Suez Canal and surrounded the Egyptian Third Army, while also pushing Syrian forces back in the Golan Heights. During the War, Arab members of the Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) imposed an oil embargo against countries supporting Israel. International pressure, including from the US and the USSR, led to a ceasefire on 25th October 1973.

The War set the stage for the Camp David Accords, a series of agreements signed in 1978 between Israel and Egypt mediated by the US.  Building on the Accords, the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty was signed in 1979. This marked the first time an Arab state officially recognised Israel, and it led normalisation of relations between the two countries and the return of the Sinai Peninsula to Egyptian control. Outraged Arab countries kicked Egypt out of the Arab League.

The Invasion of Lebanon

In March 1978 Israel launched “Operation Litani,” in Southern Lebanon in response to the Coastal Road massacre near Tel Aviv by Lebanon-based Palestinian militants, the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO). The operation aimed to push PLO forces away from the Israeli border following increased cross-border attacks. Israeli forces advanced into Southern Lebanon, reaching the Litani River, hence the operation's name. The UNSC Resolutions 425 and 426 adopted on 19th   March 1978, called on Israel to immediately withdraw its troops. It established the United Nations Interim Force In Lebanon (UNIFIL). UNIFIL’s presence continues to this day.

The Lebanon War of 1982

The War or the “Operation Peace for Galilee” began on 6th June 1982, when the Israel Defense Forces invaded Southern Lebanon aiming to eliminate PLO strongholds and secure the Northern border. The conflict witnessed the Sabra and Shatila massacres in September 1982, where Lebanese Christian militias killed Palestinian refugees. The invasion led to the siege of Beirut and the exile of the PLO’s leadership to Tunisia. The Israeli presence in Lebanon and its actions during the War played a role in the emergence of Hezbollah, a Shiite militant group. Israel occupied Southern Lebanon for almost till 2000 causing the deployment of multi-national forces like the US, France, Italy, and Syria.

The First Palestinian Intifada (1987-93)

The First Palestinian Intifada (Stone Intifada), was a sustained series of protests, civil disobedience and riots carried out by Palestinians in the Israeli-occupied Palestinian territories and Israel. In April 1988, PLO leader Abu Jihad was assassinated by an Israeli commando squad, this led to Palestinian demonstrations, with 11-15 Palestinians killed as a result the Arab League pledged financial support during its 1988 and 1989 summits. The Intifada’s repercussions gave rise to Hamas.  Israel openly defied UNSC resolutions 607, 608, 672, and 673. The Intifada resulted in the Oslo I Accords, also known as Declaration of Principles (DOP), an outgrowth of Madrid Conference and signed in 1993.

Following this, Oslo II Accords were signed in 1995 leading to the establishment of the Palestinian Authority (PA). The Accords divided the Israel-occupied West Bank into:

• ‘Area A’ and ‘Area B’ were placed under limited PA control through UNSC Resolutions 242 and 338.

• ‘Area C’ constitutes 61% of West Bank territory fully controlled by Israel. 

The Accords left the final status of Jerusalem and settlements to be sorted out later. The Accords superseded three earlier agreements, including the Gaza–Jericho, Preparatory Transfer, and Further Transfer protocols. The 2002 Roadmap for Peace ultimately shifted focus, moving away from the Oslo Accords.

Operation Grapes of Wrath 1996

The April Aggression was a campaign of the IDF against Hezbollah which attempted to end rocket attacks on Northern Israel by the organisation.  The 1996 Qana maccare, where a UNIFIL compound was hit during Israeli operations, resulted in major civilian casualties. Al-Qaeda later cited this event as motivation for anti-U.S. actions including the events of 11th September.  The UNSC Resolution 1052 called for a ceasefire. The US-brokered April Understanding led to the Monitoring Committee’s establishment, involving representatives from the US, France, Syria, Israel, and Lebanon.

The Second Palestinian Intifada (2000-05)

On 28th September 2000, Israeli politician, Ariel Sharon visited the Temple Mount, which is also the site of the al-Aqsa Mosque, sparking Palestinian protests that quickly turned into a second uprising the next day. The Israeli West Bank barrier, including the Wall and fence, was constructed along the Green Line and within the West Bank in response to violence during the Second Intifada. In 2005, Israel unilaterally dismantled 21 settlements in Gaza and withdrew its military. It also pulled out of four settlements in the West Bank. Despite this, the UN view Gaza as still under Israeli military occupation. In 2006, Hamas won the Palestinian elections. Operation Summer Rains in 2006 marked the beginning of the Gaza–Israel conflict. 

The Gaza War of 2008

A six-month-long ceasefire between Israel and Hamas ended on 4th November, when the IDF made a raid into Deir al-Balah, central Gaza to destroy a tunnel, killing several Hamas militants. This led to Operation Cast Lead involving three weeks of conflicts between Gaza Strip Palestinian paramilitary groups and the IDF which ended on 18th January 2009 with a unilateral ceasefire first initiated by the IDF. In September 2009, a UN special mission, headed by South African Justice Richard Goldstone, produced a report accusing both Palestinian militants and the Israeli army of war crimes and possible crimes against humanity and recommended bringing those responsible to justice.

EVENTS POST GAZA WAR OF 2008

The UNSC passed Resolution 1860, calling for a ceasefire after the Gaza War. In 2009 Barack Obama became the 44th US President. Shortly after taking office, he reiterated his support for a two-state solution in a speech at Cairo University. In the same year, Benjamin Netanyahu became the Prime Minister of Israel, forming a coalition government with right-wing parties Likud, Yisrael Beiteinu, the ultra-orthodox Shas and United Torah Judaism, the religious Zionist Jewish Home, and the centre-left Labor Party. A Palestinian terrorist attacked a group of Israeli children with an axe and a knife, killing one and injuring three in what came to be known as Bat Ayin axe attack. Later that year, Rabbi Meir Hai was killed, with the Al-Aqsa Martyrs’ Brigades claiming responsibility.

EVENTS DURING 2014-16

In July 2014, three Israeli teenagers were kidnapped and murdered in the West Bank. This led to increased tensions as Israel blamed Hamas. Israel started the 2014 Gaza War, known as ‘Operation Protective Edge’, on 8th July 2014, in response to the murder of three teenagers. The War ended after the US, with Egypt, Israel, and other regional powers, brokered a cease-fire. The Middle East Quartet (the UN, the US, the EU, and Russia) released a report in June 2016 expressing concern over Israeli settlement expansion in the West Bank. In December 2016, the UNSC adopted Resolution 2334, stating that Israel’s settlement activity constitutes a “flagrant violation” of international law and has “no legal validity.” The resolution was notable as the US abstained from the vote, allowing it to pass.

EVENTS DURING 2017-20

In January 2017, the Paris Peace Conference was held with the aim of reviving Israeli-Palestinian peace talks. Israel rejected the conference, while the Palestinians welcomed the efforts. Later that year, the 45th US President, Donald Trump announced that the United States would recognise Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. In May 2018, the US relocated its embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem. In March 2019, President Trump recognised Israel’s sovereignty over the Golan Heights. Later that year, the US stated that Israeli settlements in the West Bank were not necessarily inconsistent with international law.

EVENTS DURING 2017-20

In January 2020, President Trump unveiled his ‘Peace to Prosperity’ plan which included proposals for the establishment of a Palestinian State. On 15th September 2020, Israel and the UAE signed a normalisation agreement, known as Abraham Accords, mediated by President Trump. Bahrain followed the UAE in normalising relations with Israel. In October 2020, Israel and Sudan agreed to normalise ties but the agreement remains unratified as of 2024. In November 2020, a prominent Iranian nuclear scientist Mohsen Fakhrizadeh was assassinated, leading to accusations against Israel, although Israel did not confirm involvement.

EVENTS DURING 2021-22

In May 2021, the conflict between Israel and Palestinian factions in Gaza escalated, leading to an 11-day conflict known as the ‘Operation Guardian of the Walls.’ The tensions were fueled by the threatened eviction of Palestinian families from East Jerusalem’s Sheikh Jarrah neighborhood, clashes at the Al-Aqsa Mosque, and the firing of rockets from Gaza by Palestinian militant groups. A ceasefire was brokered by Egypt on 21st May 2021. On 5th August 2022, PM Yair Lapid and DM Benny Gantz ordered the ‘Operation Breaking Dawn’ without prior Cabinet approval, following a raid in Jenin where Bassam al-Saadi, a leader of Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ), was arrested. 

The clashes resulted in the deaths of at least 49 Palestinians, including 17 children although the IDF claimed some deaths were caused by failed PIJ rocket launches. On 30th November 2022, the UNGA adopted Resolution 77/23 requesting the Committee to Commemorate the 75th anniversary of the Nakba for the first time in the history of the UN. In December 2022 the UNGA passed Resolution 77/247 requesting ICJ’s “advisory opinion” on the legal implications of the prolonged Israeli occupation.

EVENTS FROM 2023-PRESENT

In January 2023, the ICJ acknowledged the request from the UNGA for an advisory opinion on the legal consequences arising from the policies and practices of Israel in the occupied Palestinian territory, including East Jerusalem. Later in January, Israeli forces raided the Palestinian city of Jenin and the next day, a Palestinian gunman attacked an East Jerusalem synagogue during prayers. 

On 9th May 2023, Israel conducted a series of airstrikes on the Gaza Strip, called ‘Operation Shield and Arrow,’ and raided a refugee camp in Jenin again in June, deploying helicopter gunships to the West Bank for the first time since the Second Intifada. 

An armed conflict between Israel and Hamas-led Palestinian militant groups has been ongoing in and around the Gaza Strip since 7th October 2023. The war began when Hamas-led Palestinian militant groups launched a surprise offensive against Israel named ‘Operation Al-Aqsa Flood.’ During this attack, 1,139 Israelis and foreign nationals were killed, while 253 Israelis and foreigners were taken captive to the Gaza Strip.

Israel declared a “state of war” and responded with extensive airstrikes followed by a ground invasion through ‘Operation Swords of Iron,’ with the stated goals of destroying Hamas, controlling Gaza and freeing the hostages.

Since the start of the Israeli operation, more than 29,514 Palestinians have been killed in Gaza, including over 12,300 children, 152 UN staff members, 70 journalists, and 8,400 women, with another 7,000 people missing and presumed dead under the rubble of destroyed buildings.

On 10th October, The International Criminal Court (ICC) confirmed that its authority to investigate alleged war crimes since June 2014 in the State of Palestine extends to the current conflict. On 15th November 2023, the UNSC adopted Resolution 2712 for a humanitarian pause during the war which remains the only resolution which the US has not vetoed. During 24th to 30th November, a seven-day truce was observed, and an exchange took place, with 105 Israeli and foreign hostages exchanged for 240 Palestinian prisoners. Western nations such as the US, the UK and Germany provide “strong” support to Israel, while the Islamic States and much of the Global South has denounced its actions. 

Escalations in the conflict involve Iranian-backed attacks on American bases in Iraq, Syria, and Jordan, along with conflicts with the Yemeni Houthi movement.

On 29th December 2023, South Africa submitted a case to the ICJ, accusing Israel of committing genocide in Gaza and requesting provisional measures to suspend its military campaign. 

On 7th January, Israel announced it had successfully destroyed the fighting force of Hamas in northern Gaza and is shifting its focus to the central and southern parts of the territory.

The Court’s Order on 26th January 2024, directed Israel to prevent any acts considered genocidal but did not explicitly call for a ceasefire. The Court found it “plausible” that some of Israel's actions might violate the Genocide Convention.