The Persian Gulf War

Overview of the War

The Gulf War was a conflict between Iraq and a coalition of 39-42 countries, led by the US. 

Iraq, under the dictator Saddam Hussein, invaded and occupied Kuwait on 2nd August 1990 ostensibly to take control of that country’s vast oil reserves, erase a sizable debt that Iraq owed Kuwait and increase its influence in the area. 

The invasion prompted international condemnation, leading to UN sanctions and the deployment of coalition troops, authorised to use force if Iraq did not withdraw from Kuwait by 15th January 1991.

The coalition response was divided into two main phases:

• Operation Desert Shield: This saw military buildup from August 1990 to January 1991, 

• Operation Desert Storm: It commenced with aerial bombings on 17th January 1991 and concluded with the liberation of Kuwait on 28th February 1991 by US-led forces.

The War that changed all Wars

The Gulf War marked the first major armed conflict following the end of the Cold War, symbolising a shift in global power dynamics and the emergence of the US as the dominant military force. 

The coalition was the largest military alliance since World War II. 

The War is notable for introducing live news broadcasts from the battlefield, marked a significant chapter in military history, featuring three of the largest tank battles in American military annals.

The US DoD has estimated the incremental costs of the Gulf War at $61 billion. 

Approximately 697,000 US troops were deployed to the Persian Gulf region, resulting in 382 in-theatre casualties.

Estimates of Iraqi soldier fatalities vary widely, ranging from 1,500 to 100,000. 

Background of the War

In the early 1900s, the Arabian Peninsula comprised tribes under Ottoman Empire control and post-World War I, the Ottoman Empire’s dissolution led to the amalgamation of Baghdad, Basra, and Mosul into modern Iraq in southwestern Asia, while Kuwait, situated southeast of Iraq, fell under the British rule. 

Iraq’s governance faced humanitarian and economic crises after the Iran-Iraq conflict (1980-88), accumulating debt from regional and global nations, owing a significant debt share to Kuwait and Saudi Arabia ($30 billion), who declined debt waivers. 

Iraq accused Kuwait of exceeding oil production quotas set by the Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) from the Ar-Rumaylah oil fields located along their common border, which resulted in a decline in oil prices and negatively impacted Iraq's economy.

Tensions heightened in 1990 when Iraq accused Kuwait of oil theft and conspiring to keep oil prices low in an effort to pander to Western oil-buying nations.

Iraq commenced troop buildup on Kuwait’s border, leading Egypt’s President Hosni Mubarak to initiate negotiations between Iraq and Kuwait to avert intervention by external powers. 

However, Saddam abruptly terminated talks and after two hours initiated Kuwait’s invasion on 2nd August, annexing it on 8th August, calling it Iraq’s “19th province”.

Saddam’s assumption that Arab states would remain passive in response to his aggression proved erroneous as the majority of Arab League members condemned Iraq’s actions, prompting Saudi Arabia’s King Fahd and Kuwait’s government-in-exile to seek support from the US and NATO allies.

Seeking broader Muslim backing, Saddam proclaimed a jihad (holy war) against the coalition and sought alignment with the Palestinian cause, proposing Kuwait’s evacuation in exchange for Israeli withdrawal from occupied territories. 

Failing in these endeavours, Saddam swiftly brokered peace with Iran to augment his military capabilities.

International and Allied Response

U.S. President George H. W. Bush swiftly condemned the invasion of Kuwait, as did Britain and the USSR. 

On the same day, the UNSC passed Resolution 660, denouncing Iraq’s actions and demanding its withdrawal from Kuwait. Three days later, King Fahd sought US military aid in a meeting with US Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney.

On 6th August, the UNSC passed Resolution 661, imposing trade and financial sanctions on Iraq. 

Subsequently, on 7th August, President Bush initiated Operation Desert Shield. 

On August 8th, Iraq formally annexed Kuwait, prompting the UNSC to pass Resolution 662 the next day, declaring the annexation illegal.

On 29th November, the War officially began when the UNSC authorised the use of “all necessary means” against Iraq if it failed to withdraw from Kuwait by 15th January 1991. 

Operation Desert Storm & Desert Sabre

In the early hours of 17th January, a US-led air offensive struck Iraq's air defences, swiftly targeting its communication networks, weapons facilities, oil refineries, and other strategic assets. 

The oversight was coordinated by General Colin Powell, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and General Norman Schwarzkopf.

The coalition utilised cutting-edge military technology, including Stealth bombers, Cruise missiles, “Smart” bombs equipped with laser-guidance systems, and infrared night-bombing gear.

The Iraqi air force was either decimated early in the conflict or refrained from engagement amid the relentless assault, aimed at securing air superiority and minimising ground combat. 

By mid-February, coalition air strikes shifted focus towards Iraqi ground forces in Kuwait and southern Iraq.

Also known as the coalition's ground offensive, Operation Desert Sabre commenced on February 24, saw coalition troops moving from northeastern Saudi Arabia into Kuwait and southern Iraq. 

The US XVIII Airborne Corps, including the French Daguet Division, advancing towards the Euphrates. 

Over the ensuing four days, coalition forces encircled and defeated Iraqi forces, liberating Kuwait. 

Simultaneously, US forces penetrated Iraq, attacking Iraqi armored reserves from the West. 

The operation concluded within just 100 hours. The elite Iraqi Republican Guard’s defence in southeastern Iraq, near Al-Basrah, succumbed by February 27.

The Aftermath

As Iraqi resistance neared collapse, President Bush declared a ceasefire on 28th February 1991, formally ending the Persian Gulf War. 

To prevent future aggression, the UN enacted Resolution 686 and Resolution 687.

Under the terms of Resolution 687, which Saddam Hussein accepted, Iraq acknowledged Kuwait’s sovereignty and committed to disposing of all weapons of mass destruction, including nuclear, biological, and chemical arsenals with a range exceeding 150 km.

The Iraqi-Kuwaiti border was delineated by a UN committee in 1992, in accordance with an UNSC Resolution 688 affirming the border’s inviolability. 

The Commission’s recommendations, largely favouring Kuwait, resulted in slight northward shifts in both the Safwān region and the disputed Al-Rumaylah oil field. 

This granted Kuwait access to additional oil wells and a portion of the Umm Qasr naval base. While Kuwait accepted the UN’s border determination, Iraq contested it.

Originally envisaged as a “limited” conflict with minimal costs, the Gulf War had enduring repercussions in the Persian Gulf region and beyond. 

Post-war, Saddam’s regime violently suppressed uprisings by Kurds in Northern Iraq and Shi'ites in the South, while the coalition refrained from supporting them, fearing the dissolution of the Iraqi state.

This led to brief hostilities in 1998, followed by Iraq’s refusal to admit weapons inspectors and regular skirmishes with US and British aircraft over the no-fly zone.

In 2002, US President George W. Bush, sponsored a new UN resolution advocating for the return of weapons inspectors to Iraq. These inspectors re-entered Iraq in November of that year.

On 17th March 2003, President Bush issued an ultimatum, without UN approval, demanding that Saddam Hussein relinquish power and depart Iraq within 48 hours, or face military action. 

Saddam rejected the ultimatum, leading to the second Persian Gulf War (the Iraq War), three days later.